Preface: The Invasion Plans--Peripeteia, Hubris

Japanese military hubris. Lieutenant General Homma briefs general staff on unrealistically optimistic plans for invasion and occupation of the Philippines.

            On October 1941, a meeting of staff officers of the Japanese 14th Army took place in Tokyo.  In attendance were Lieutenant General Masaharu Homma commander of the 14^th Army, his entire group of staff officers, and an emissary of the Imperial General Headquarters, Colonel Masunobu Tsuji

As his mission, Homma had been assigned to lead the invasion and conquest of the Philippine Islands. All officers of Homma’s general staff in attendance sat around a long, oval table with less senior officers seated behind their superiors.  His head shaved head, square jawed, piercing eyes beneath thick eyebrows, and at five foot ten inches, tall for a Japanese, Homma stood ram-rod straight before his general staff.  His uniform, pressed flawlessly, consisted of a white shirt, open collar outside an olive-green tunic, and brown leather boots polished to a high sheen ending below the knees.  Double silver star insignias, gold highlighted, on his collar identified his rank.  Three rows of campaign ribbons adorned his crisp tunic above his breast pocket.          

            A military career spanning 30 years had brought Homma to this moment; he had entered the Japanese Army an Officer Cadet, graduating Class of 1907, Imperial Japanese Army Academy.  War beginning with Sino-Japanese war in 1937 had since perpetuated Homma’s swift military rise through the ranks of generals.   Homma had witnessed the aftermath of atrocities of Shanghai and most infamously Nanking, China, which he believed stemmed from a top-to-bottom breakdown in military discipline and order, from high command to the private soldier. On his orders, the troops of the expeditionary force on Taiwan were instructed that foreign property was to be respected  Having lived in among the occidentals and served as a military observer in France during the Great War, Homma understood the western view of military honor.  He was determined that no repeat of “these unfortunate incidents” would tarnish the Japanese occupation in the Philippines.

Homma drew himself to commanding attention wielding a pointer in his hand before a large map of the Philippine Islands, an archipelago of 7,100 known islands and islets totaling about 115,000 square miles.  “Honorable officers, thank you all for your attendance at this most important conference.  I am honored to explain our mission the conquest of the Philippines, a glorious campaign to eliminate the American challenge to divine right of Japan to unify Asia under Emperor Hirohito's rule.  Most of you are already aware of the strategic plan as presented by the Imperial Army General Staff so I will be brief in restating the main points.  Victory depends on achieving several objectives in rapid, well timed sequence. First carrier-based dive and torpedo bombers will attack the American naval fleet in Pearl Harbor with the goal of destroying offensive naval capability.  Next, within 24 hours, heavy bomber from Formosa will attack American air force installations in the Philippines.  Once American offensive naval and air power capability in the pacific has been eliminated, we can proceed unimpeded with an invasion and occupation of the Philippines and Malaya.  Isolating this region will sever British and American lines of communication in the Far East.  We will follow these victories with the seizure of Guam, the Dutch East Indies, and the capture of other American areas in the Pacific.  These outlying areas will give Japan an outer barrier of protection against American encroachment.”

            Homma spoke with the conviction of a lawyer delivering a closing argument.  “When these objectives are accomplished, America will have no choice but to negotiate a treaty favorable to Japan giving the Imperial Japanese Empire full control of the vital resources of Southeast Asia. In Malaya, this includes the region’s rubber and tin production; in the Philippines, gold, copper, chromium and agricultural resources; and in the Dutch East Indies, the vast oil reserves, which will effectively break the current American embargo and enable Japan to realize our goal of a unified South Asia.”

            With a flourish of his pointer, Homma pronounced, “In this grand plan, the 14th Army of which I am honored and privileged to command has been assigned the critical mission conquest of Philippines.”  Homma tapped the pointer on the map. “Even more important than its resources, the Philippines are strategically situated in the geographic heart of the Far East, central in location to Japan, China coast, Burma, French Indochina, Malaya, and the Dutch Indies.  Currently all these areas are within striking distance of American forces in the Philippines.  As long as American forces remain there, Japan cannot safely secure our vital interests in South Asia.  To quote the American supreme commander in the far east General MacArthur, “The Philippines are ‘the key that unlocks the door to the Pacific.’"  Homma traced his pointer across the northern Island of Luzon to a wide bay with a narrow opening shaped like a gold fish bowl.  "This is Manila bay, the finest natural harbor in the Far East and essential as a hub for shipping and communications between Japan and rest of the Imperial Japanese Empire,”

Tusuji enthusiastically interjected, “Like a giant web, connecting all points and Japan poised right in the middle.”  Homma contemplated an unspoken rebuke, You think the Emperor’s new subjects flies, but decided against possibly inciting Tsuji’s notoriously disruptive temper.”

            Homma tapped the pointer sequentially on four points on the map:  Three times on Luzon, at over 40,000 square miles the largest of the Philippine islands, and once on Mindanao, shy of 38,000 the second largest landmass in the island chain.  “The main invasion will be preceded by division strength landings by Army and Navy units from Taiwan at these three sites on Luzon:  Aparri, Vigan, and Legaspi; and in the south at Davao on Mindanao.  These are port cities with facilities for landing troop and supplies.  All of them have nearby airfields suitable for fighter aircraft.  Once these fields are secured, the Imperial Japanese air force will use them to strike at American troops and destroy the remaining air forces in the Philippines.”   

            He moved the pointer to a large, scalloped bay north of Manila on the eastern coast of Luzon facing the China Sea. “This is Lingayen Gulf where the main force of the invasion,43,000 troops, will make amphibious landings.  Based on our intelligence the beaches are poorly defended.  Upon securing the beach head and immediate area, the 14^th army will move south through the central plains of Luzon to the Philippine capital city of Manila.  The majority of the Philippine forces are commanded by American officers and the majority of troops are Filipino, most of which are poorly trained and equipped.”  Homma’s upper lip half-curled contemptuously. 

“I served with the English during the Great War.  American troops were regarded as good soldiers, but are inclined to deteriorate physically and mentally in a tropical climate. The Filipino though accustomed to the tropics, have little endurance or sense of responsibility, and are markedly inferior to the American as soldiers.  I anticipate complete route in our advance south toward Manila.

            Homma then pointed to an elongated, concave bay on the east coast of southern Luzon southeast of Manila.  “This is Lamon Bay.  A smaller force of 7,000 troops will land here and advance northeast toward Manila with close air support.  Our two forces will be in position to attack Manila from the north and south in a pincer maneuver with the enemy trapped in between.  The enemy will be forced to make their final defense around Manila.  When defeated they will be scattered and easily mopped up. 

            With a grunt of satisfaction, Tsuji recited the samurai proverb, “The weak are the meat, the strong eat!”  Homma observed around the table, his officers nodding in agreement.  Ignoring Tsuji, Homma continued. “Once the Manila is taken, the last remaining obstacle, the island fortress of Corregidor defending the entrance to Manila Bay, will be cutoff, captured and conquest of Luzon Complete.  The rest of the Philippines shall soon follow.”

            A round of Bonzai cheers rose from among the officers.  Homma half-raised his hand, his expression grave.  “Our deadline is tight.  Imperial General Headquarters expect us to complete our mission in about fifty days--conquest of the Philippines before the end of February 1942.  At the end of that time, approximately half of the 14th Army, as well as the Army and Navy air units, are to leave the Philippines where they are required for operations in the South Pacific in the Dutch Indies.  The remaining elements of the 14th Army will occupy and garrison the Philippines.  Though forces remaining are small, we expect little difficulty in this phase of operations.  The fall of Manila will have a strong psychological effect toward demoralizing further Filipino resistance, and thereby facilitate the pacification of the remainder of the Philippines. We expect to readily win Filipino cooperation through political concessions and inclusion in the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere.  As envisioned by our esteemed foreign minister Hachiro Arita, this refers to a self-sufficient block of Asian nations, under the benevolent guidance of Japan, sharing prosperity and peace free from Western colonialism and domination.  Simply stated, Asia for Asians, which the Filipinos will come to realize is in their best interests.”

            Homma spoke for another hour elaborating on issues related to troop stationing, supply management, and military administration. After completing his briefing to his staff, Homma asked, “Are there any questions?” Numerous hands rose.

            Homma nodded to Lieutenant Colonel Motoo Nakayama, an operations officer.  To demonstrate magnanimity, he typically picked a lower ranking officer to start the questions. “Yes, Colonel Nakayama.”

            “Japanese-American negotiations are in progress in Washington.  If they succeed will military plans be abandoned?”

            At the question, Colonel Tsuji, a vehement advocate of war with United States and Britain, jolted forward as if electrified, his wide jaw clenched and his narrow shoulders hunched.  He fixed Nakayama with a basilisk stare, as if noting him for future inquest.  He wore round-lensed spectacles that magnified his epicanthal eye folds and unwavering eyes in a stone-cold expression of cruelty.

            Homma solemnly shook his head.  “Imperial General Headquarters has concluded that negotiations have reached an impasse. America insists that Japan withdraws all our forces from China which we will not do.  We have offered to withdraw from Indochina, but they have rejected this concession.  They refuse to lift their oil embargo, which they believe gives them leverage over us.  We have less than two years of strategic oil reserves so we must strike now.  There is no turning back from the course of war.”

            Homma next picked his chief of staff, Lt. Gen. Masami Maeda. “Clearly what you have explained is the most likely battle scenario.  However, the map of Luzon shows the Peninsula of Bataan, which forms the north coast of Manila bay.  What if the American forces withdraw into Bataan to make a final stand?  And with the Island fortress of Corregidor at the mouth of Manila bay, it would be difficult to flank the troops on Bataan from the sea.  We would then have to defeat them in a potentially costly frontal attack, which could upset our time table.”

           Homma snorted contemptuously.  “General Maeda, Bataan is simply an outlying position. There is no evidence of any prepared defenses there.  It would make no sense for American troops to trap themselves into such an inescapable position.  The Americans would be caught like a cat in a bag.  All we’d have to do is pull the draw strings shut.”  The officers in attendance chuckled obsequiously. 

Not bothering to raise his arm Colonel Tsuji obstreperously cleared his throat.  “General Homma!” he exclaimed sharply.

“Yes, Colonel Tsuji,” Homma responded blandly.  Tsuji perfunctorily bowed his clean-shaven head.  Tsuji wielded immense political power despite his low rank.  An aggressive and influential ultranationalist, he enjoyed the authority of Imperial General Headquarters and the confidence of the Emperor’s younger brother Prince Chichibu, a former classmate at the Tokyo Military Academy.  Ruthless, Tsuji instilled fear in his fellow officers, wary of his tendency to engage in intrigue and reputed involvement in the removal and even assassination of senior officers whom he believed were not sufficiently aggressive.  His known deeds justified such speculation.  In the aftermath of the battle of Nomonhan, a Japanese military defeat in 1939 against Russia over disputed borders in Mongolia and Manchuria, an enraged Tsuji ordered repatriated officers who had been taken prisoner to commit suicide for dishonoring the bushido military code, surrendering alive to the enemy.  Whispered rumors circulated that he planned the assassination of the Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoye, if Konoye achieved peace with the U.S.

            “General Homma, I commend you for a satisfactory synopsis of the invasion plans.  I wish to make a point rather than ask a question.  You mentioned gold among the resources of the Philippines.  Gold is the highest priority resource.  You must secure the gold fields of Northern Luzon immediately.”

            In spite of himself, Homma snorted.  “Gold?  Surely the copper is a more important resource to a modern, electrically powered nation.  My understanding is the reason we are going to war is to secure the resources to power the industrial engines of the Japanese economy, not to build gilded roofs on our temples.  For your information Colonel Tsuji, Japan withdrew from the gold standard in 1932.”

            Tsuji looked grave.  “General Homma one of Japan’s strategic weakness, even with all of the resources of south-east Asia at our disposal, Japan is not totally self-sufficient.  We simply cannot appropriate enough raw materials or manufacture all the technology we need to meet our objectives.  Some of the resources Japan needs must come from outside the sphere of the Japanese empire.  Technology we will have to obtain from our dubious axis partners the Germans.  Since the Japanese currency is not universally convertible to other currencies, few neutral countries will accept the yen as payment for imports of strategic materials or buy Japanese bonds in the midst of a war.  Without any other capital at our disposal, gold is essential for such commerce.”

Bringing his hand down forcefully on the table, his voice rising in pitch, Tsuji exclaimed, “And for your information General Homma, the gold fields in northern Luzon are the second largest gold strike in American History.  We need those gold stocks to fund this war.  Therefore, you must move quickly to secure the gold fields. I speak for the Imperial General Headquarters on this matter.” His voice shifted suddenly from forceful to soothing, “And General Homma, if it is any consolation, the copper mines are only another 40 km north of the gold fields.”

            “Thank you, Colonel Tsuji!  The need to fund this war cannot be understated,” Homma responded with feigned acquiescence, secretly resenting the colonel’s arrogance.  Tsuji had a well-earned reputation for challenging superiors, which had prevented his rise in rank above colonel but had not stifled his political power supported by high-placed benefactors in the Imperial Japanese government, including direct access to Imperial Army Minister General Hideki Tojo.  “The importance of the gold fields is duly noted and will assume its rightful priority.  But there is the possibility that the Americans may destroy the mines before we can reach them.”

            Tsuji stared brazenly at Homma.  “I am confident you have been well chosen and will successfully complete your assigned missions.”  Homma stiffened but resisted the urge to reply.

            Homma turned his attention to a logistics officer Colonel Hayato Sasaki, though Sasaki had not raised his hand.  Thick eyeglasses, pinched face and self-effacing mannerism gave Sasaki a scholarly appearance. “Colonel Sasake you have a reputation as a student of history.  What is the common factor in military success?”

            “Surprise and speed!  Doing what the enemy does not expect quickly.”

            “Exactly!  The Americans may expect an attack in the Philippines but not Hawaii.  Our intelligence tells us that their warships are lined up in a row at Pearl Harbor, to use another American expression ‘like sitting ducks’.  These carefully coordinated dual attacks are the last thing they expect.  Therefore, by this reasoning victory is certain.”

            Sasake hardly felt erudite.  Any officer cadet could have parroted “surprise” and “quickly.”  He reflected how often the unexpected is reciprocal, for every action there is an equal reaction, historically the most commonly overlooked factor by short-sighted military strategists. The Greeks had a word for it, peripeteia, the reversal of fortunes.  He recalled a lesson from recent history, German overreach in the Great War. Their optimistic plans to conquer France projected a quick, easy victory:  Attack the undefended underbelly of France through Belgium, avoiding the heavily fortified French border with Germany; quickly seize Paris and defeat the French in three months, certainly not the four years of brutal trench war that ended in Germany’s ignominious defeat.  To the contrary, Belgian military forces held up the Germans for nearly a month. French railways and northern French road networks made movement of enough troops far enough and fast enough nearly impossible.  Unforeseen difficulties compounded giving the French time to organize and move their own troops rapidly into defensive positions.  Now twenty-six years later, Germany, Japan’s axis partner, had succeeded on its second attempt at conquest and occupation of France. Began on May 10, 1940, the German invasion so far had appeared to have solved the problems inherent in the previous Great War with a more mobile, mechanized army and clever political manipulation dividing France into occupied and nominally sovereign Vichy France.  However, as Sasaki understood history’s lessons, it is easier to conquer territory than to hold it.  He recalled another Greek word ‘hubris’ that referred to the folly of overconfident leaders who challenged the Gods

            From the map, Sasaki surmised, the size and geography of the Philippines would make occupation after the conquest extremely difficult with only 30,000 troops left to garrison the entire country.   Before they knew the lay of the land, off would go the other half of the troops to fight new battles in new lands as the Japanese expanded their empire. With the Philippines archipelago, sprawling along 1,000 miles of ocean, he wondered how such a small force could possibly control more than a few key cities.  On the coasts, numerous bays and coves would make tracking a covert enemy difficult.  The maze of sea routes through 7,000-odd islands and islets made the Philippines as porous as a sieve to undetected movement of enemy vessels.  On the main islands of Luzon and Mindanao, the isolated valley farmlands and virtually inaccessible mountains of the interior would make concentration of troops nearly impossible without robbing troops and supplies from one area to another.  The terrain was a tremendous handicap to any effective unification of strength, even if much larger forces were available. If the Philippines are so strategically important, Sasaki wondered, then why did long term plans for troop deployment not consider the most basic obstacles to occupying and administering conquered territories!  Didn’t the Army learn anything in China?  The Philippines would not be like a leisurely march through the rolling plains of Belgium.  Though he outwardly feigned deference, Sasaki broodingly cursed the short-sighted logistics?  Rather than question the wisdom of the Imperial command, Sasaki discretely kept these thoughts to himself.

Author's Note

(c) 2/13/2018

Reviews

[Dave Potter]

Very good. You appear to have detailed knowledge of the subject with writing skills that allows even a dyslexic reader such as myself the ability to follow along. I look forward to reading more. Thanks for the post, Dave

[Warrior]

I like how you take history and turn it into a story, brilliant.